Plant Guide

Abies amabilis (Dougl. ex Loud.) Dougl. ex Forbes
Pacific silver fir
ABAM

Summary
Duration	Perennial
Growth Habit	Tree
U.S. Nativity	Native to U.S.
Federal T/E Status
National Wetland Indicator	UPL, FACU

Morphology/Physiology
Active Growth Period	Spring and Summer
After Harvest Regrowth Rate
Bloat	None
C:N Ratio	High
Coppice Potential	No
Fall Conspicuous	Yes
Fire Resistant	No
Flower Color	Yellow
Flower Conspicuous	No
Foliage Color	Gray-Green
Foliage Porosity Summer	Dense
Foliage Porosity Winter	Dense
Foliage Texture	Medium
Fruit/Seed Color	Brown
Fruit/Seed Conspicuous	No
Growth Form	Single Stem
Growth Rate	Slow
Height at 20 Years, Maximum (feet)	20
Height, Mature (feet)	200
Known Allelopath	No
Leaf Retention	Yes
Lifespan	Long
Low Growing Grass	No
Nitrogen Fixation
Resprout Ability	No
Shape and Orientation	Erect
Toxicity	None

Growth Requirements
Adapted to Coarse Textured Soils	Yes
Adapted to Fine Textured Soils	Yes
Adapted to Medium Textured Soils	Yes
Anaerobic Tolerance	None
CaCO3 Tolerance	Low
Cold Stratification Required	Yes
Drought Tolerance	Low
Fertility Requirement	Low
Fire Tolerance	None
Frost Free Days, Minimum	40
Hedge Tolerance	None
Moisture Use	Medium
pH, Minimum	3.3
pH, Maximum	6
Planting Density per Acre, Minimum	300
Planting Density per Acre, Maximum	700
Precipitation, Minimum	34
Precipitation, Maximum	80
Root Depth, Minimum (inches)	36
Salinity Tolerance	None
Shade Tolerance	Tolerant
Temperature, Minimum (°F)	7

Reproduction
Bloom Period	Late Spring
Commercial Availability	Routinely Available
Fruit/Seed Abundance	Low
Fruit/Seed Period Begin	Summer
Fruit/Seed Period End	Fall
Fruit/Seed Persistence	No
Propagated by Bare Root	Yes
Propagated by Bulb	No
Propagated by Container	Yes
Propagated by Corm	No
Propagated by Cuttings	No
Propagated by Seed	Yes
Propagated by Sod	No
Propagated by Sprigs	No
Propagated by Tubers	No
Seed per Pound	11280
Seed Spread Rate	Slow
Seedling Vigor	Low
Small Grain	No
Vegetative Spread Rate	None

Suitability/Use
Berry/Nut/Seed Product	No
Christmas Tree Product	No
Fodder Product	No
Fuelwood Product	Low
Lumber Product	Yes
Naval Store Product	No
Nursery Stock Product	No
Palatable Browse Animal
Palatable Graze Animal
Palatable Human	No
Post Product	No
Protein Potential
Pulpwood Product	Yes
Veneer Product	Yes

Kingdom Plantae -- Plants

Subkingdom Tracheobionta -- Vascular plants

Superdivision Spermatophyta -- Seed plants

Division Coniferophyta -- Conifers

Class Pinopsida

Order Pinales

Family Pinaceae -- Pine family

Genus Abies P. Mill. -- fir P

Species Abies amabilis (Dougl. ex Loud.) Dougl. ex Forbes -- Pacific silver fir P

Uses

Pacific silver fir is used in urban landscaping and grown commercially for Christmas trees. When used for landscaping, sufficient space should be allocated for the relatively large size of mature trees. The soft, light-weight wood is weak and has low durability. It has been used for light construction frames, construction plywood, container veneer, and pulpwood.

The dense growth of Pacific silver fir provides cover and protection during the winter for wildlife. Old-growth stands provide habitat for mountain goat, northern spotted owl, Vaux’s swift, western red-backed vole, and the Olympic salamander. Seeds provide food for birds, rodents, and squirrels, while the leaves of growing shoots are browsed by elk.

Status

Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s current status (e.g. threatened or endangered species, state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).

Description

General: Pine Family (Pinaceae). Pacific silver fir is a U.S. native conifer that ranges from 100 to 230 feet tall and up to 45 inches in diameter at the base. Like all true firs, it has erect, cylindrical cones that are borne near the tips of the uppermost branches. Secondary branches and twigs are typically in pairs, with leaves twisted or curved so that they tend to lie in one plane. Mature cones are 3.5 to 6 inches long and purple. Mature trees are erect, conical in outline, with spreading, spray-like branches and a scaly, gray to whitish bark. Young shoots have a dense, short, pinkish brown pubescence. Most of the needle-like leaves range from 0.5 to 1.3 inches long, are bright green, somewhat flattened, and have notched tips.

Distribution: For current distribution, please consult the Plant Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web site.

Adaptation

Native to the Pacific Northwest, Pacific silver fir ranges from southern Alaska to northern California. Well developed stands are primarily found at elevations from 1,000 to 7,000 feet on the coastal slopes of the Cascades. However, in the northern part of its range, stands occur well below 1,000 feet. Pacific silver fir usually occurs in uniform stands or associated with western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla). The geographic range is characterized by a maritime to submaritime climate, with an annual precipitation between 40 to 260 inches per year, and average summer temperatures between 57 to 59 degrees F. Plants have a mild frost tolerance and a low tolerance for frozen soil conditions. Soils are usually very moist, somewhat acidic (pH 5), and rich in magnesium and calcium. A thin bark and highly flammable foliage contribute to low levels of resistance to fire.

Establishment

Pacific silver firs reproduce only from seed. Both pollination and seed dispersal are effected by wind. Plants are capable of self-fertilization and produce mature cones and seeds two years after pollination. Cones disintegrate while on the tree and seeds are either dispersed by wind or small mammals. Cool moist sites are optimal for germination, but full sunlight produces maximum growth. Germination can occur on a variety of substrates, including litter, rotten wood, moss, and organic and mineral soils.

Management

Management for most fungal diseases involves thinning at least 25 feet from dead trees and minimizing wounding during logging or trimming. Treating remaining stumps with fungicide or stump removal after logging is useful in preventing further contamination. In some cases, removal of infected trees and trunks should be practiced as soon as disease is diagnosed. Air drying large stumps often reduces chances of further infection.

Pests and Potential Problems

Pacific silver firs are susceptible to several fungal diseased, including Annosus root disease (Heterobasidion annosum). Infected trees may show retarded leader growth, sparse and chlorotic foliage, stem decay, and abortive cones. The most reliable way to detect this disease is by the presence of fruiting bodies in the duff layer at the root collar on the outer bark. Trees become infected by rood contact or by airborne spores falling onto woonds. Other fungal diseases include Indian paint fungus (Echinodontium tinctorium) and laminated root rot (Phellinus weirii). Both can infect stands of trees and result in patches of damaged or dead trees.

Trees weakened by disease or poor growing conditions may become infested with fir-engraver beetle (Scolylus ventralis), silver fir beetle (Pseudohylesinus sericeus), or fir root bark beetle (Pseudohylesinus granulatus). In large numbers, these beetles may kill entire trees before any symptoms are observed. Pacific silver firs are also susceptible to Western spruce budworm (Choristeneura occidentalis), Douglas fir tussock moth (Orygia pseudotsugata) infestation. Applying fertilized and varying the age and density of stands reduces the infestation. Balsam wooly aphids (Adelges piceae) are an extremely devastating pest to this species. Infected trees appear swollen with little growth and usually die from the top down within 2 to 3 years. To prevent further infestation, most trees need to be removed and the site rplanted with such species as western hemlock.

Seeds and Plant Production

Cone production may begin at an age of 20 to 30 years. Each cone can produce up to 400 seeds, but the percentage of viable seed ranges from 6.3 to 35 percent. Preferred methods of cone collecting include extension poles with appropriate pruners. Cones should be collected between mid and late August or just prior to disintegration. They should be stored in well-ventilated bags or sacks at temperatures between 70 and 80 degrees until the cones have disintegrated. Seeds can be extracted mechanically by using screens and then cold-stratified under dry conditions at temperatures between 10 and 30 degrees F for 4 to 6 months. Germination is best accomplished by placing them in a moist, well-aerated soil mix at temperatures between 35 and 40 degrees F. Light enhances germination and development of seedlings. Plant can be grown either individually in containers or in flats prior to transplantation. Under field conditions, seed should be sown in the spring at a density of 62.5 to 125 per acre and approximately 0.25 inches deep. During the first few years, growth ranges from 4 to 16 inches annually. Fertilizer combined with thinning enhances growth.

Cultivars, Improved, and Selected Materials (and area of origin)

Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office for more information. Look in the phone book under ”United States Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation Service will be listed under the subheading “Department of Agriculture.”

Cultivars include a slow-growing, broadly ovoid form, ‘Compacta’ and a low-growing, spreading form with horizontal branches, ‘Spreading Star.’ Retail nurseries in the Pacific Northwest that stock native shrubs and trees may carry the cultivars.

References

Arno, S. & R. Hammerly. 1977. Northwest trees. The Mountaineers, Seattle, Washington. 222 p.

Dickman, A. & S. Cook. 1989. Fire and fungus in a mountain hemlock forest. Canadian Journal of Botany 67:2005-2016.

Filip, G. & C. Schmitt. 1990. Rx for Abies: Silvicultural options for diseased firs in Oregon and Washington. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Gen. Tech. Report 252. 34 p.

Klinka, K., V. Krajina, A. Ceska, & A. Scagel. 1989. Indicator plants of coastal British Columbia. University of British Columbia Press, Vancouver. 288 p.

Krajina, V., K. Klinka, & J. Worrall. 1982. Distribution and ecological characteristis of trees and shrubs of British Columbia. University of British Columbia, Vancouver. 131 p.

Oliver, C. & R. Kenady (eds.). 1982. Proceedings of the biology and management of true fir in the Pacific Northwest. University of Washington, College of Forest Resources, Contribution No. 45, Seattle.

USDA NRCS. 2007. The PLANTS website. http://plants.usda.gov. Accessed 070117. National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.

Prepared By

Dieter Wilken, Santa Barbara Botanic Garden, Santa Barbara, California

Species Coordinator

Dieter Wilken, Santa Barbara Botanic Garden, Santa Barbara, California

Edited: 070117 jsp

For more information about this and other plants, please contact your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the PLANTS Web site<http://plants.usda.gov> or the Plant Materials Program Web site <http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>

Abies balsamea (L.) P. Mill.
balsam fir
ABBA

Summary
Duration	Perennial
Growth Habit	Tree
U.S. Nativity	Native to U.S.
Federal T/E Status
National Wetland Indicator	FAC, FACW

Morphology/Physiology
Active Growth Period	Spring and Summer
After Harvest Regrowth Rate
Bloat
C:N Ratio	High
Coppice Potential	No
Fall Conspicuous	No
Fire Resistant	No
Flower Color	Yellow
Flower Conspicuous	No
Foliage Color	Green
Foliage Porosity Summer	Dense
Foliage Porosity Winter	Dense
Foliage Texture	Medium
Fruit/Seed Color	Brown
Fruit/Seed Conspicuous	No
Growth Form	Single Stem
Growth Rate	Slow
Height at 20 Years, Maximum (feet)	18
Height, Mature (feet)	60
Known Allelopath	No
Leaf Retention	Yes
Lifespan	Moderate
Low Growing Grass	No
Nitrogen Fixation
Resprout Ability	No
Shape and Orientation	Conical
Toxicity	None

Growth Requirements
Adapted to Coarse Textured Soils	Yes
Adapted to Fine Textured Soils	No
Adapted to Medium Textured Soils	Yes
Anaerobic Tolerance	None
CaCO3 Tolerance	Low
Cold Stratification Required	Yes
Drought Tolerance	Low
Fertility Requirement	Medium
Fire Tolerance	Low
Frost Free Days, Minimum	80
Hedge Tolerance	Low
Moisture Use	Medium
pH, Minimum	4
pH, Maximum	6
Planting Density per Acre, Minimum	300
Planting Density per Acre, Maximum	1200
Precipitation, Minimum	13
Precipitation, Maximum	60
Root Depth, Minimum (inches)	20
Salinity Tolerance	None
Shade Tolerance	Tolerant
Temperature, Minimum (°F)	-43

Reproduction
Bloom Period	Mid Summer
Commercial Availability	Routinely Available
Fruit/Seed Abundance	Medium
Fruit/Seed Period Begin	Fall
Fruit/Seed Period End	Fall
Fruit/Seed Persistence	No
Propagated by Bare Root	Yes
Propagated by Bulb	No
Propagated by Container	Yes
Propagated by Corm	No
Propagated by Cuttings	No
Propagated by Seed	Yes
Propagated by Sod	No
Propagated by Sprigs	No
Propagated by Tubers	No
Seed per Pound	59840
Seed Spread Rate	Slow
Seedling Vigor	Low
Small Grain	No
Vegetative Spread Rate	None

Suitability/Use
Berry/Nut/Seed Product	No
Christmas Tree Product	Yes
Fodder Product	No
Fuelwood Product	Low
Lumber Product	Yes
Naval Store Product	Yes
Nursery Stock Product	Yes
Palatable Browse Animal	Low
Palatable Graze Animal
Palatable Human	No
Post Product	No
Protein Potential	Low
Pulpwood Product	Yes
Veneer Product	Yes

Kingdom Plantae -- Plants

Subkingdom Tracheobionta -- Vascular plants

Superdivision Spermatophyta -- Seed plants

Division Coniferophyta -- Conifers

Class Pinopsida

Order Pinales

Family Pinaceae -- Pine family

Genus Abies P. Mill. -- fir P

Species Abies balsamea (L.) P. Mill. -- balsam fir P

Alternate Names

Pinus balsamea L.

Uses

Balsam fir is used primarily for Christmas trees and pulpwood, although some lumber is produced from it in New England and the Lake States. The wood is light in weight, low in bending and compressive strength, moderately limber, soft, and low in resistance to shock.

Status

Description

Balsam fir is a small to medium sized coniferous tree. Growth occurs in whorls of branches surrounding an upright leader or terminal, making a symmetrical tree with a broad base and narrow top. It is relatively short-lived and is considered a sub-climax type species in the New England states, but may be a climax type in the zone below timberline.

Needles are 3/4 to 1 inch long, flat, and often strongly curved. Twigs with needles have a generally flattened appearance. Both male and female flowers are found on the same branch. Cones are 2 to 4 inches long, purplish in color, and stand erect on branches (as do those of all true firs). There are about 60,000 seeds in a pound. The bark is smooth, thin, and grayish, distinguished by soft blisters containing a clear, odiferous resin known as Canadian balsam.

Adaptation and Distribution

The soils on which balsam fir grows range from silt loams developed from lake deposits to stony loams derived from glacial till. Fir will grow, but comparatively slowly, on gravelly sands and in peat bogs. It grows on soils of pH ranging from 4.0 to 6.0. It is generally found in areas with a cold moist climate and with 30 inches or more of annual precipitation. Fir is subject to windthrow, especially on shallow wet soils. Because of its thin bark, shallow root system, and flammable needles, balsam fir is easily killed by fire.

Balsam fir is distributed throughout the Northeast and upper Midwest. For a current distribution map, please consult the Plant Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Website.

Establishment

The use of natural regeneration methods for balsam fir is very effective on open and disturbed sites (heavily cut areas), but an adequate seed source must exist. This species can also be readily grown in nurseries, for transplanting to abandoned fields, Christmas tree plantations, and open areas. Use conventional tree planting techniques and equipment. Three or four year old seedling stock should be utilized.

Management

This section is under development. Please consult the Related Web Sites links on the PLANTS Plant Profile.

Cultivars, Improved, and Selected Materials (and area of origin)

Although most available seedlings of balsam fir are of unknown parentage, some are produced from local selections.

Prepared By & Species Coordinator:

USDA NRCS Northeast Plant Materials Program

31Jan2002 JLK; 24may06jsp

Abies concolor (Gord. & Glend.) Lindl. ex Hildebr.
white fir
ABCO

Summary
Duration	Perennial
Growth Habit	Tree
U.S. Nativity	Native to U.S.
Federal T/E Status
National Wetland Indicator

Morphology/Physiology
Active Growth Period	Spring and Summer
After Harvest Regrowth Rate
Bloat
C:N Ratio	High
Coppice Potential	No
Fall Conspicuous	No
Fire Resistant	Yes
Flower Color
Flower Conspicuous	No
Foliage Color	Green
Foliage Porosity Summer	Dense
Foliage Porosity Winter	Dense
Foliage Texture	Medium
Fruit/Seed Color	Brown
Fruit/Seed Conspicuous	No
Growth Form	Single Stem
Growth Rate	Slow
Height at 20 Years, Maximum (feet)	20
Height, Mature (feet)	180
Known Allelopath	No
Leaf Retention	Yes
Lifespan	Long
Low Growing Grass	No
Nitrogen Fixation
Resprout Ability	No
Shape and Orientation	Conical
Toxicity	None

Growth Requirements
Adapted to Coarse Textured Soils	Yes
Adapted to Fine Textured Soils	No
Adapted to Medium Textured Soils	Yes
Anaerobic Tolerance	None
CaCO3 Tolerance	Low
Cold Stratification Required	Yes
Drought Tolerance	Medium
Fertility Requirement	Medium
Fire Tolerance	High
Frost Free Days, Minimum	80
Hedge Tolerance	Low
Moisture Use	Medium
pH, Minimum	5.5
pH, Maximum	7.8
Planting Density per Acre, Minimum	300
Planting Density per Acre, Maximum	1200
Precipitation, Minimum	18
Precipitation, Maximum	80
Root Depth, Minimum (inches)	40
Salinity Tolerance	None
Shade Tolerance	Tolerant
Temperature, Minimum (°F)	-38

Reproduction
Bloom Period	Late Spring
Commercial Availability	Routinely Available
Fruit/Seed Abundance	Medium
Fruit/Seed Period Begin	Summer
Fruit/Seed Period End	Fall
Fruit/Seed Persistence	No
Propagated by Bare Root	Yes
Propagated by Bulb	No
Propagated by Container	Yes
Propagated by Corm	No
Propagated by Cuttings	Yes
Propagated by Seed	Yes
Propagated by Sod	No
Propagated by Sprigs	No
Propagated by Tubers	No
Seed per Pound	15920
Seed Spread Rate	Moderate
Seedling Vigor	Medium
Small Grain	No
Vegetative Spread Rate	None

Suitability/Use
Berry/Nut/Seed Product	No
Christmas Tree Product	Yes
Fodder Product	No
Fuelwood Product	Low
Lumber Product	Yes
Naval Store Product	No
Nursery Stock Product	Yes
Palatable Browse Animal	Low
Palatable Graze Animal
Palatable Human	No
Post Product	No
Protein Potential	Low
Pulpwood Product	Yes
Veneer Product	Yes

Kingdom Plantae -- Plants

Subkingdom Tracheobionta -- Vascular plants

Superdivision Spermatophyta -- Seed plants

Division Coniferophyta -- Conifers

Class Pinopsida

Order Pinales

Family Pinaceae -- Pine family

Genus Abies P. Mill. -- fir P

Species Abies concolor (Gord. & Glend.) Lindl. ex Hildebr. -- white fir P

Alternate Names

Abies grandis var. concolor, balsam fir, Colorado white fir, Picea concolor, Pinus concolor, silver fir, and white balsam. There are two varieties of white fir, sometimes recognized as separate varieties and sometimes grouped under the white fir blanket. They are Rocky Mountain fir (Abies concolor var. concolor) and California white fir (Abies concolor var. lowiana, also known as Sierra white fir).

Uses

Ethnobotanic: Native Americans used white fir for medicine, building material, and for making household items. The needles were used to relieve pain caused by rheumatism and pulmonary ailments. The resin was used to heal cuts, sores, and boils and was also decocted for the treatment of venereal diseases. Bark infusions were used to remedy tuberculosis.

Bark was used to dye buckskin a tan color. Branches were used to line storage containers and to make pipe stems. The plant was used to decorate ceremonies and houses.

Ornamental: White fir is a popular species in the Christmas tree industry. It is drought and heat resistant and is often used for plantings in the rural and suburb landscapes of the northern United States.

Rehabilitation: White fir is used to revegetate disturbed forest sites where it naturally occurs. It is also an appropriate choice for use on roadcuts due to its ability to stabilize soil.

Wildlife: White fir habitats are included in the summer and winter ranges of deer, elk, and bear. Mountain beaver habitat use has been correlated to white fir abundance. Many bird species, including bald eagle, northern spotted owl, brown creeper, and red-breasted nuthatches are associated with white fir habitat types.

Mule deer and black-tailed deer browse new foliage in the spring. Porcupines consume white fir bark and can destroy saplings. Mice eat snow-level suckers in the winter while pocket gophers eat seedlings in the winter and fall. Blue grouse consume the needles. Grouse, chipmunks, mice, flying squirrels, chickadees, crossbills, and Clark’s nutcracker consume white fir seeds. The Douglas squirrel caches white fir cones during late summer and fall.

Hollowed-out trunks provide protection and shelter for many small mammals including weasels, porcupines, and black bears.

Wood Products: White fir wood is used for all-purpose construction materials like framing, plywood, and pulpwood. Its straight grain makes the wood appropriate for use as poles and pilings. White fir is also used for firewood although it does not produce much heat.

Legal Status

Rocky Mountain white fir (Abies concolor var. concolor) is protected in Nevada as a Christmas tree. Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s current status (e.g. threatened or endangered species, state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).

Description

General: Pine Family (Pinaceae). White fir is a large coniferous tree, growing up to 55 m tall and having a dbh of up to 1 to 2 m, depending on location. The bark is smooth, whitish-gray, and occasionally blistered with resin vesicles, becoming thick, hard and irregularly furrowed with age. The crown tends to be symmetrical and dome-shaped, although the varieties of white fir may exhibit differences in crown shape. California white fir has a cylindrical crown while Rocky Mountain white fir has a broader crown. Branches are short and stout, arranged in whorls of 4 or 5. Buds are blunt. Leaves (needles) are 3-7 cm long, loosely 2-ranked, rounded at the ends, and curved upward. A waxy covering give the needles a bluish cast. Needles also have two white lines on their undersides. Cone production varies by site, tree size, and age. White fir trees begin cone production at about 40 years and bear cones at the upper third of the crown. Cones are 10-13 cm long, greenish-yellow becoming dark purple, produce about 185-295 seeds each, and shatter upon maturity. The seeds are released in the fall and germinate in the spring.

Key characteristics of white fir include the similar coloring on both upper and undersides of the needles, smooth bark with resin blisters, long needles (in comparison to other fir species), resinous buds, circular leaf scars, and a citrus odor that is released when the needle is broken.

Morphological and chemical characters, such as needle tip shape, stomatal arrangement, and terpene content, separate the two white fir varieties.

Distribution: White fir is native to the western United States, from Idaho, south through Colorado and New Mexico, and west through California and Oregon. The Great Basin creates the gap between the varieties. Rocky Mountain white fir occurs in the central portion of the white fir range, from southeastern California, Arizona, and New Mexico to southeastern Idaho and Colorado. It has also been planted in the New England states. California white fir occurs from central California into western portions of Nevada and southwest Oregon. It has been reported in southern California, although there is no confirmation that these plants are not the Rocky Mountain variety.

For current distribution, please consult the Plant Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web site.

Habitat: In the mixed conifer forests of California and southern Oregon, white fir may form pure stands or share dominance with species such as incense-cedar, ponderosa pine, lodgepole pine, sugar pine, Jeffrey pine, and Douglas pine. It is also a secondary species in subalpine woodlands represented by whitebark pine, limber pine, mountain hemlock, lodgepole pine, western white pine and foxtail pine. California white fir is one of the coniferous dominants of the California hardwood forests. In the mixed-conifer forest of the Sierra Nevada Mountains, it may share dominance with incense cedar, ponderosa pine, sugar pine, and Douglas fir. The mesic sites at upper elevations of the Sierra Nevada Mountains are referred to as the white fir zone.

Within the Cascade Range of northern California and central Oregon, the white fir zone occurs at elevations above 1500 m. It is the dominant species, having 18 known associations with species like lodgepole pine, western serviceberry, mountain hemlock and Pacific rhododendron. It is also found within mixed conifer stands at mid-elevations.

White fir is an indicator species of the lower elevation limit of montane forest vegetation in the Klamath Mountains of California and Oregon. At higher elevations, white fir shares dominance with red fir. In the mountain ranges of southern California, white fir becomes the dominant species at higher elevations. It is associated with sugar pine, incense cedar, and western juniper.

The white fir series in the major mountain ranges in the southwest can have any mixture of white fir with Douglas fir, Engelmann spruce, blue spruce, subalpine fir, ponderosa pine, and southwestern white pine. It is a dominant or climax species of several habitat types and series in Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, and Colorado.

In Utah, white fir occurs throughout the higher mountain ranges of the northwestern region and increases in importance through southern Utah. It occurs in subalpine zones with Engelmann spruce and blue spruce in the Douglas fir series and ponderosa pine habitat types.

In southern Colorado and northern New Mexico, white fir is a co-climax species with Douglas fir and is associated with blue spruce, limber pine, ponderosa pine, Engelmann spruce, subalpine fir, quaking aspen, and Rocky Mountain juniper. The white fir-Douglas fir-pondersoa pine series is the most widespread and one of the most varied types in Arizona and New Mexico. In mixed conifer forests, dominated by the white fir-gambel oak habitat type, white fir shares climax status with Douglas fir. Other associates include Chihuahua pine, Rocky Mountain lodgepole pine, Mexican pinyon, and New Mexico locust.

White fir is widespread in riparian areas of Utah, Wyoming, Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexico. It is associated with boxelder and narrowleaf cottonwood in Utah, blue spruce and lodgepole pine in Wyoming, and with blue spruce, cottonwood species, and Rocky Mountain maple in Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexico. More detailed habitat descriptions can be found in Zouhar (2001).

Adaptation

The USDA hardiness zones of white fir range from 3 to 7. It occurs at varied elevations, ranging from 900 m to over 3000 m. Annual precipitation varies among white fir sites from 350 mm to 1240 mm. White fir tends to occupy more mesic sites at lower elevations and more xeric sites at upper elevations. It grows on acidic soil, most types of parent material, and is tolerant of a wide range of soil conditions, nutrient availability, and pH. It grows best on moderately deep and well-drained sandy- or clay- loam soils. It is moderately sensitive to excess soil moisture and is less tolerant of shade compared to associated true firs. Dense shade will decrease the growth rate, but will not kill the tree.

Establishment

Germination and early growth are best if seeds have fallen on bare mineral soil before the permanent snow cover has fallen. Root systems are longer, heavier, and have more mycorrhizal root tips if grown in bare mineral soil. Seedlings are best established in partial shade, but can also establish in dense shade. Once established, it grows best in full sun.

Management

White fir is easily killed by fire. Low branches provide a ladder for understory fire to reach the canopy. Prescribed burning is recommended if pure stands of white fir are not desired and to reduce fuel loading. Burns will promote suckering of other tree species so that pure stands of white fir will not form.

White fir can be managed for timber harvest. Shelterwood methods have the best regeneration results. Some overstory removal provides enough light for white fir regeneration, but also provides enough shade to prevent the regeneration of other species. Many white fir stands have been managed using even-aged management techniques.

Mycorrhizal associations are important to the growth and health of white fir. Bare mineral soils promote these associations that aid in establishment on poor sites.

Lack of management in white fir stands may increase the trees’ chances of susceptibility to insect pests and diseases.

Pests and Potential Problems

Dwarf mistletoe is a common pest of white fir. The parasitic plants germinate on white fir branches and force their roots into the phloem of the host branch. Dwarf mistletoe weakens the tree and leaves it susceptible to fungal infections and insect attacks. It also creates stem cankers that leave the wood weak and unsuitable for use as lumber.

Wounding, as a result of mechanical injuries, fire, insects, or frost cracks, promotes or provides entrance for fungi into white fir trees. Annosus, Armillaria, laminated root diseases, yellow cap fungus, Indian paint fungus, and white pocket rot reduce plant productivity and cause wood decay and mortality. Fungal infections also promote susceptibility to insect infestations.

The fir engraver beetle (Scolytus ventralis), a member of the bark beetle family, causes high mortality in white fir stands. The beetle bores holes into the main stem, often in bark crevices at the branch and trunk junctions. Once under the bark, adults engrave egg galleries into the sapwood, disrupting the flow of water and nutrients to that portion of the plant. The appearance of yellowed or reddened branches on an otherwise green tree is early evidence of fir engraver infestation. Fir engravers can kill the plant. The only known preventative is proper maintenance of white fir trees.

White fir in shallow soils can be damaged by strong winds. The chances of windthrow are increased when neighboring trees are removed.

Seeds and Plant Production

White fir is produced by seeds. Seeds are ready for collection when the cone easily breaks apart. A cold stratification period up to 60 days is required. Germination will occur under an alternating temperature cycle of 30^oC daytime and 20^oC nighttime temperatures.

White fir is easily transplanted, although it is somewhat sensitive to being transplanted in autumn. If planted in autumn, care should be taken to fertilize, thoroughly water, adequately mulch, amend the soil, and avoid winter salt spray. These care practices will enhance the chances for survival during the first winter.

Cultivars, Improved, and Selected Materials (and area of origin)

The USDA NRCS Plant Materials Program has not released white fir cultivars for conservation use.

Ornamental cultivars are somewhat available from commercial growers in ball and burlap form:

‘Blue Cloak’

‘Blue Globe’

‘Blue Select’

‘Candicans’

‘Compacta’

‘Conica’

‘Dwarf Blue’

‘Gables Weeping’

‘Glenmore’

‘Nana’

‘Sherwood Blue’

‘Winter Gold’

References

Agricultural Research Center. 2004. GRIN taxonomy (http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/index, 29 June 2004). USDA, Beltsville.

Aldworth, S.J. 1998. Abies concolor. (http://project.bio.iastate.edu/trees/campustree/ISU_trees.html, 29 June 2004). Iowa State University, Ames.

Baskin, C.J., J.M. Baskin. 2001. Propagation protocol for production of container Abies concolor (G&G) Lindl. plants. (http://www.nativeplant network.org, 29 June 2004). College of Natural Resources, University of Idaho, Moscow.

Brand, M. 2001. University of Connecticut plant database (http://www.hort.uconn.edu/plants/, 29 June 2004). University of Connecticut, Storrs.

Earle, C.J. 2004. Gymnosperm database (http://www.conifers.org/index.htm, 29 June 2004). Department of Botany, University of Bonn, Germany.

Heatley, R. 1999. Ornamental plants plus, Version 3.0 (http://www.msue.msu.edu/imp/modzz/masterzz.html, 29 June 2004). Michigan State University Extension, East Lansing.

Rhodes, T. 2002. PlantFacts database (http://plantfacts.osu.edu/, 29 June 2004). The Ohio State University, Columbus.

Virginia Tech Forestry Department. 2003. Dendrology tree fact sheets (http://www.cnr.vt.edu/dendro/dendrology/factsheets. cfm, 29 June 2004). Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg.

Zouhar, K. 2001. Abies concolor. (http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/, 29 June 2004). Rocky Mountain Research Station, USDA Forest Service, Missoula.

Prepared By:

Sarah Wennerberg

USDA NRCS National Plant Data Center

Baton Rouge, Louisiana

Species Coordinator:

Mark Skinner

USDA NRCS National Plant Data Center

Baton Rouge, Louisiana

Edited: 4Aug2004 sbw, 13Oct2004 rln; 24may06jsp

Abies grandis (Dougl. ex D. Don) Lindl.
grand fir
ABGR

Summary
Duration	Perennial
Growth Habit	Tree
U.S. Nativity	Native to U.S.
Federal T/E Status
National Wetland Indicator	FACU-*

Morphology/Physiology
Active Growth Period	Spring and Summer
After Harvest Regrowth Rate
Bloat
C:N Ratio	High
Coppice Potential	No
Fall Conspicuous	No
Fire Resistant	Yes
Flower Color
Flower Conspicuous	No
Foliage Color	Green
Foliage Porosity Summer	Dense
Foliage Porosity Winter	Dense
Foliage Texture	Medium
Fruit/Seed Color	Brown
Fruit/Seed Conspicuous	No
Growth Form	Single Stem
Growth Rate	Moderate
Height at 20 Years, Maximum (feet)	25
Height, Mature (feet)	200
Known Allelopath	No
Leaf Retention	Yes
Lifespan	Long
Low Growing Grass	No
Nitrogen Fixation
Resprout Ability	No
Shape and Orientation	Conical
Toxicity	None

Growth Requirements
Adapted to Coarse Textured Soils	Yes
Adapted to Fine Textured Soils	No
Adapted to Medium Textured Soils	Yes
Anaerobic Tolerance	None
CaCO3 Tolerance	Low
Cold Stratification Required	Yes
Drought Tolerance	Low
Fertility Requirement	Medium
Fire Tolerance	High
Frost Free Days, Minimum	60
Hedge Tolerance	Low
Moisture Use	Medium
pH, Minimum	4.5
pH, Maximum	7.5
Planting Density per Acre, Minimum	300
Planting Density per Acre, Maximum	1200
Precipitation, Minimum	11
Precipitation, Maximum	100
Root Depth, Minimum (inches)	40
Salinity Tolerance	None
Shade Tolerance	Tolerant
Temperature, Minimum (°F)	-33

Reproduction
Bloom Period	Late Spring
Commercial Availability	Field Collections Only
Fruit/Seed Abundance	Medium
Fruit/Seed Period Begin	Summer
Fruit/Seed Period End	Fall
Fruit/Seed Persistence	No
Propagated by Bare Root	Yes
Propagated by Bulb	No
Propagated by Container	Yes
Propagated by Corm	No
Propagated by Cuttings	No
Propagated by Seed	Yes
Propagated by Sod	No
Propagated by Sprigs	No
Propagated by Tubers	No
Seed per Pound	23200
Seed Spread Rate	Slow
Seedling Vigor	Low
Small Grain	No
Vegetative Spread Rate	None

Suitability/Use
Berry/Nut/Seed Product	No
Christmas Tree Product	Yes
Fodder Product	No
Fuelwood Product	Low
Lumber Product	Yes
Naval Store Product	No
Nursery Stock Product	Yes
Palatable Browse Animal	Low
Palatable Graze Animal
Palatable Human	No
Post Product	No
Protein Potential	Low
Pulpwood Product	Yes
Veneer Product	Yes

Kingdom Plantae -- Plants

Subkingdom Tracheobionta -- Vascular plants

Superdivision Spermatophyta -- Seed plants

Division Coniferophyta -- Conifers

Class Pinopsida

Order Pinales

Family Pinaceae -- Pine family

Genus Abies P. Mill. -- fir P

Species Abies grandis (Dougl. ex D. Don) Lindl. -- grand fir P

Alternate common names

Lowland white fir, balsam fir, western balsam fir, yellow fir, California great fir, Oregon white fir, Puget Sound fir, giant fir, grand fir, silver fir, tall silver fir, great silver fir, stinking fir

Uses

The soft wood of grand fir is a valued source of pulpwood and is harvested as timber even though it is weaker and more prone to decay than many other species. It is also used as plywood and has been used for various kinds of rough construction, such as framing, sheathing, subflooring, planking, beams, posts, siding, paneling, millwork, prefabricated buildings and structural members, furniture parts, and boxes and crates.

The thick-foliage, symmetry, deep green shiny color, and strong, orangish fragrance make grand fir one of the preferred species of Christmas trees grown in the Northwest. Most seedlings produced for Christmas tree growers originate from the "Panhandle" area of Idaho. In most areas, it will produce a marketable tree in 8-10 years. Grand fir also is valued in plantings in recreation areas and urban sites. It grows quickly in the moister parts of Britain and is cultivated for timber in western and northern Europe.

The aromatic properties of grand fir were important in many of its uses by American Indians. The needles were boiled to make a medicinal tea for colds. Boughs were brought inside as an air freshener and burned as incense and to make a purifying smoke to ward off illnesses. Dried, crushed needles have been used as baby powder. The pitch of young trees was mixed with oil to be used as a deodorant and rubbed on the scalp to prevent balding.

The famous Barlow Road snub-trees on the south side of Mount Hood in Oregon were grand firs. They were used by early settlers to control the rate of descent of their covered wagons on a particularly steep slope in their trek from east to west. Some of the rope-burned trees are still standing after 150 years.

The majority of pileated woodpecker roost trees in northeastern Oregon were grand fir, both live and dead, where a hollow chamber had been created by decay from Indian paint fungus. The majority of roosts occurred in old-growth stands of grand fir.

Status

Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s current status, such as, state status and wetland indicator values.

Description

General: Pine Family (Pinaceae). Native evergreen trees growing to 75-100 meters tall, the crown conic, becoming round or straggly with age, branches dropping, twigs mostly opposite. Bark: smooth, gray, becoming brown and furrowed with age. Needles are 2-6 cm long, flattened, strongly waxy and silvery-white on the lower surface, green above, mostly 2-ranked, spreading horizontally, not concealing the upper surface of twigs, the needles 1-ranked and spiraled higher on the tree; resin canals marginal, located near the lower epidermis; stomatal rows absent on the upper surface at midleaf, 5-7 stomatal rows on each side of midrib of lower surface. Seed cones: 6-12 cm long, 2-4 cm wide, dark purple or blue to gray or light green at maturity, erect and on the upper branches. Native. The common name refers to the large size of mature trees, one of the tallest of the firs.

Variation within the species: Although Abies grandis is fairly uniform throughout its range, a green coastal form and gray interior form are often recognized, and five fairly distinct climatic forms of grand fir have been identified, differing mainly in physiological and ecological traits. Abies grandis var. idahoensis Silba was recently described (Silba 1990) as “an inland variety, to 1850 m altitude” from southeast British Columbia to central Idaho, characterized by smaller cones, a distinct forward and vertical spread of the leaves, and more twisted petioles. In southern Oregon and northern California, grand fir hybridizes and introgresses with A. concolor, which generally grows in higher, drier habitats. Natural hybrids also are known between grand fir and subalpine fir.

Abies grandis is distinguished from the closely similar A. amabilis by bud scales slightly pubescent or glabrous (vs densely pubescent), upper surface of twigs easily visible (vs concealed by the needles), and variably colored mature seed cones (vs purple). Compared to subalpine fir, grand fir occurs at lower elevations, has a wider crown, and usually produces broad spreading lower limbs with beautifully even secondary branchlets.

Distribution: Coastal British Columbia, south along the coast to Sonoma County, California. A disjunct population system in the Northern Rocky Mountains occurs from southern British Columbia and Alberta to Washington, Oregon, Idaho, and western Montana. For current distribution, please consult the Plant Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web site.

Adaptation

Common in moist forests in stream bottoms, valleys, and Lower Mountain slopes, preferably on N-facing slopes, on a variety of soil types, 0-1500 meters. Grand fir sometimes grows in pure stands but is much more common in mixed coniferous and hardwood forests. It is very shade tolerant, especially when young, although growth is slower in dense shade. It is a dominant climax species in some habitat types and a long-lived seral species in other types.

Establishment

Seed production in grand fir is relatively low. A good cone crop is considered to be more than 40 cones per tree – the interval between good seed crops is about 2-3 years. Seed production begins at about 20 years of age. Germination is best on mineral soil but in open sites the seeds germinate nearly as well on duff as on any other surface. Primary causes of germination failure are insect infestation and the perishable nature of the seeds. Grand fir seedlings are relatively resistant to drought on areas exposed to full sun because deep initial root penetration protects them from drying of the surface soil. On heavily shaded, cool areas, surface dryness from drought is the most important physical cause of seedling mortality because initial root penetration is slow.

Initial survival and growth of grand fir are favored by moderate shade, where growth may be aggressive enough to form a dominant part of the forest. After 20-30 years, it makes most rapid growth in the open. Trees 250 years old are common and occasional trees may be more than 300 years old.

Management

Susceptibility to heart rot and decay is one of the more important factors in management of grand fir. Centers of decay are closely related to logging scars, frost cracks, broken tops, and other mechanical injuries. Grand fir is thin-barked and sensitive to fire – ground fires in moist creek bottoms are highly damaging but trees on dry hillsides are more resistant, largely because of a deeper root system and thicker bark. Control of fires in the drier southern parts of the Northwest has allowed an increase in range of grand fir over the last 50 years.

Well-stored seed can retain viability for up to 5 years, but germination is often poor, usually taking about 6-8 weeks. If seed are sown in a cold frame immediately after autumn ripening, stratification is said to produce a more even germination. Seedlings are usually transplanted in a nursery for 1-2 years. Young trees should be planted into their permanent positions when they are well under one meter tall.

Cultivars, Improved and Selected Plant Materials (and area of origin)

This tree should be available through your local nursery.

References

Bull, E.L., R.S. Holthausen, & M.G. Henjum 1992. Roost trees used by pileated woodpeckers in northeastern Oregon. J. Wildlife Management 56:786-793.

Foiles, M.W., R.T. Graham, & D.F. Olson, Jr. 1990. Abies grandis. Pp. 52-59, IN: R.M. Burns and B.H. Honkala. Silvics of North America. Volume 1. Conifers. USDA, Forest Service Agric. Handbook 654, Washington, D.C. <http://willow.ncfes.umn.edu/silvics_manual/Table_of_contents.htm>

Hunt, R.S. 1993. Abies. Pp. 354-362, IN:Flora of North America, North of Mexico. Vol. 2, Pteridophytes and gymnosperms. Oxford Univ. Press, New York. <http://hua.huh.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/Flora/flora.pl?FLORA_ID=12395>

Silba, J. 1990. A supplement to the international census of the Coniferae, II. Phytologia 68:7-78.

Van Pelt, R. 1996. Champion trees of Washington State. University of Washington Press, Seattle, Washington.

Xie, C.-Y. & C.C. Ying 1993. Geographic variation of grand fir (Abies grandis (Dougl.) Lindl.) in the Pacific Coast region - 10 year results from a provenance trail. Canad. J. For. Res. 23:1065-1072.

Prepared By

Guy Nesom

BONAP, North Carolina Botanical Garden,

University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina

Species Coordinator

Lincoln Moore

USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana

Edited: 13nov00 jsp; 25feb03 ahvv; 24may06jsp

Abies lasiocarpa (Hook.) Nutt.
subalpine fir
ABLA

Summary
Duration	Perennial
Growth Habit	Tree
U.S. Nativity	Native to U.S.
Federal T/E Status
National Wetland Indicator	UPL, FAC

Morphology/Physiology
Active Growth Period	Spring and Summer
After Harvest Regrowth Rate
Bloat
C:N Ratio	High
Coppice Potential	No
Fall Conspicuous	No
Fire Resistant	No
Flower Color
Flower Conspicuous	No
Foliage Color	Green
Foliage Porosity Summer	Dense
Foliage Porosity Winter	Dense
Foliage Texture	Medium
Fruit/Seed Color	Brown
Fruit/Seed Conspicuous	No
Growth Form	Single Stem
Growth Rate	Slow
Height at 20 Years, Maximum (feet)	15
Height, Mature (feet)	100
Known Allelopath	No
Leaf Retention	Yes
Lifespan	Long
Low Growing Grass	No
Nitrogen Fixation
Resprout Ability	No
Shape and Orientation	Conical
Toxicity	None

Growth Requirements
Adapted to Coarse Textured Soils	Yes
Adapted to Fine Textured Soils	No
Adapted to Medium Textured Soils	Yes
Anaerobic Tolerance	None
CaCO3 Tolerance	Low
Cold Stratification Required	Yes
Drought Tolerance	Low
Fertility Requirement	Medium
Fire Tolerance	Low
Frost Free Days, Minimum	120
Hedge Tolerance	Low
Moisture Use	Medium
pH, Minimum	4
pH, Maximum	6.5
Planting Density per Acre, Minimum	300
Planting Density per Acre, Maximum	1200
Precipitation, Minimum	20
Precipitation, Maximum	40
Root Depth, Minimum (inches)	40
Salinity Tolerance	None
Shade Tolerance	Tolerant
Temperature, Minimum (°F)	-51

Reproduction
Bloom Period	Late Spring
Commercial Availability	Routinely Available
Fruit/Seed Abundance	Medium
Fruit/Seed Period Begin	Summer
Fruit/Seed Period End	Fall
Fruit/Seed Persistence	No
Propagated by Bare Root	Yes
Propagated by Bulb	No
Propagated by Container	Yes
Propagated by Corm	No
Propagated by Cuttings	No
Propagated by Seed	Yes
Propagated by Sod	No
Propagated by Sprigs	No
Propagated by Tubers	No
Seed per Pound	37440
Seed Spread Rate	Slow
Seedling Vigor	Low
Small Grain	No
Vegetative Spread Rate	None

Suitability/Use
Berry/Nut/Seed Product	No
Christmas Tree Product	Yes
Fodder Product	No
Fuelwood Product	Low
Lumber Product	Yes
Naval Store Product	No
Nursery Stock Product	Yes
Palatable Browse Animal	Low
Palatable Graze Animal
Palatable Human	No
Post Product	No
Protein Potential	Low
Pulpwood Product	Yes
Veneer Product	No

Kingdom Plantae -- Plants

Subkingdom Tracheobionta -- Vascular plants

Superdivision Spermatophyta -- Seed plants

Division Coniferophyta -- Conifers

Class Pinopsida

Order Pinales

Family Pinaceae -- Pine family

Genus Abies P. Mill. -- fir P

Species Abies lasiocarpa (Hook.) Nutt. -- subalpine fir P

Alternate common names

Alpine fir, balsam fir, white balsam, white fir, western balsam fir, cork bark fir

Uses

The wood is white, soft, brittle, and quick to decay, used for rough construction and boxes, doors, frames, poles, and fuel. Small trees are extensively used for Christmas trees. Subalpine fir is a forest pioneer on severe and disturbed sites. By providing cover, it assists in rehabilitating the landscape and protecting watersheds. Subalpine fir grows in forests that occupy the highest water yield areas in much of the western United States and are thus highly significant in water management and conservation.

Native Americans used pitch and bark preparations for wounds and the wood, bark, and boughs for roof shingles, baskets and bedding. The pitch was also used to coat canoe seams and rubbed on bowstrings as a sealant and protectant.

Status

Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s current status, such as, state noxious status and wetland indicator values.

Description

General: Pine Family (Pinaceae). Native, evergreen trees growing to 20 meters tall with a sharp, spire-like crown, the upper several feet often less than 30 cm in diameter, the plants often reduced to a prostrate shrub on exposed sites near timberline. Bark is smooth, grayish-white, with resin blisters, becoming furrowed only when the tree approaches a foot in diameter (or var. arizonica, see below, with a softer, corky trunk); branches with bark splitting to reveal a reddish-brown layer; leaf scars with periderm red (or tan in var. arizonica). Needles are 1.8-3 cm long, flattened, grooved and bluish-green waxy on the upper surface, 1-ranked and tending to turn upward so that the foliage of a particular branch appears flattened and as though no leaves were attached to the lower sides of the twigs; resin canals median, located between the upper and lower epidermis. Seed cones are 6-12 cm long, 2-4 cm wide, dark purple, erect and only on the uppermost branches. The common name refers to the distribution of the species in the subalpine zone.

Variation within the species: Taxonomy of the species is not settled. Abies bifolia A. Murr. may be treated within A. lasiocarpa or as a separate species (evidence summarized by Hunt 1993). A southern population system (Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado) is sometimes recognized as A. lasiocarpa var. arizonica (Merriam) Lemmon (corkbark fir), or it may be identified as part of A. bifolia.

Abies lasiocarpa in the broad sense is distinguished from A. balsamea by 4-5 stomatal rows on the upper surface at midleaf (vs. mostly 7 rows in A. balsamea).

Distribution

Subalpine fir is widespread in western North America, from southeastern Alaska, Yukon, and Mackenzie south to California, in the Rocky Mountains to northeastern Arizona and New Mexico. For current distribution, please consult the Plant Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web site.

Adaptation

Subalpine fir grows in subalpine coniferous forests, 600-3600 meters, up to timberline, often associated with Douglas fir, Engelmann spruce, and blue spruce. It is restricted to cold, humid habitats because of low tolerance to high temperatures. Cool summers, cold winters, and deep winter snowpacks are more important than total precipitation in differentiating where subalpine fir grows in relation to other species.

Establishment

Trees of subalpine fir may begin to produce cones when 20 years old, but under closed-forest conditions, seed production is not significant until trees are older. Corkbark fir does not begin to bear cones until about 50 years old. Maximum seed production occurs in dominant trees 150-200 years old.

Germination and early survival are generally best on exposed mineral soil and moist humus, but a wide variety of other seedbed types also provide adequate conditions. Spring planting is most successful. Subalpine fir invades and establishes on open, severe or disturbed sites near timberline because of its ability to establish a root system under conditions too severe for its less hardy associates and its ability to reproduce by layering.

Subalpine fir is relatively slow growing. Seedlings average less than 38 cm in height after 15 years in the open. Heart rot is a severe problem, and many trees die or are complete culls at an early age. Of those reaching maturity, trees 25-51 cm in diameter are often 150-200 years old, and trees older than 250 years are not uncommon. Some trees in Olympic National Park, Washington, have been determined to be over 400 years old (by ring count).

Management

Periodic thinning increases the yield and size of individual trees, but the fir component of subalpine spruce-fir stands is likely to be greatly reduced by repeated thinning, so that the stand at the time of final harvest will be almost pure Spruce.

In the Cascades, the European balsam woolly adelgid has caused significant mortality to subalpine fir, virtually eliminating it from some stands in Oregon and southern Washington. Windthrow is a common problem in subalpine fir, presumably because of its relatively shallow root system. Pruning should be kept to a minimum, for when older branches are removed, new growth seldom develops and, consequently, the trees become ragged and unkempt.

Cultivars, Improved and Selected Materials (and area of origin)

Available through most nurseries. Horticultural and ornamental cultures have been recognized, including the following:

A. lasiocarpa cv. beissneri – a dwarf tree bearing distorted branches and twisted needles.

A. lasiocarpa cv. caerulescens – a normal-sized tree with especially intensive bluish needles.

A. lasiocarpa cv. compacta – a dwarf tree of compact habit.

References

Earle, C.J. 2000. Gymnosperm database-Abies lasiocarpa. 29nov2000.

<http://www.geocities.com/~earlecj/pi/ab/lasiocarpa.htm>

Foiles, M.W., R.T. Graham, & D.F. Olson, Jr. 1990. Abies lasiocarpa. Pp. 52-59, IN: R.M. Burns and B.H. Honkala. Silvics of North America. Volume 1. Conifers. USDA, Forest Service Agric. Handbook 654, Washington, D.C. <http://willow.ncfes.umn.edu/silvics_manual/Table_of_contents.htm>

Hunt, R.S. 1993. Abies. Pp. 354-362, in Flora of North America, North of Mexico. Vol. 2, Pteridophytes and Gymnosperms. Oxford Univ. Press, New York, New York. <http://hua.huh.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/Flora/flora.pl?FLORA_ID=12395>

Leadem, C.L. 1988. Dormancy and vigour of Abies lasiocarpa seeds. Can. Soc. Plant Physiologist, University of Victoria, British Colombia, Canada.

Van Pelt, R. 1996. Champion trees of Washington state. University of Washington Press, Seattle, Washington.

Prepared By

Guy Nesom

BONAP, North Carolina Botanical Garden, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina

Species Coordinator

Lincoln Moore

USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana

Edited: 13nov00 jsp;07feb03ahv; 24may06jsp

Acacia angustissima (P. Mill.) Kuntze
prairie acacia

Kingdom Plantae -- Plants

Subkingdom Tracheobionta -- Vascular plants

Superdivision Spermatophyta -- Seed plants

Division Magnoliophyta -- Flowering plants

Class Magnoliopsida -- Dicotyledons

Subclass Rosidae

Order Fabales

Family Fabaceae -- Pea family

Genus Acacia P. Mill. -- acacia P

Species Acacia angustissima (P. Mill.) Kuntze -- prairie acacia P

Alternate Names

Fern acacia, white-ball acacia, Texas acacia, prairie guajillo

Uses

Erosion control: Prairie acacia may provide ground cover vegetation for critically eroding areas to reduce soil erosion and improve water quality.

Livestock: Prairie acacia forms a symbiotic association with rhizobial bacteria, and this association fixes atmospheric nitrogen. The measured crude protein percentage of prairie acacia leaves ranges from 16 to 29. Prairie acacia can withstand frequent cutting or defoliation. Prairie acacia has been extensively investigated as a fodder shrub/tree for tropical areas. Reports describe prairie acacia as having low to moderate palatability. The leaves of prairie acacia contain tannins and non-protein amino acids. These compounds are toxic to some animals. Sudden dietary supplementation with prairie acacia fodder at high concentrations caused death in sheep. The signs of toxicity from prairie acacia are similar to those exhibited by sheep fed flat pea (Lathyrus sylvestris) hay. Rabbits fed prairie acacia leaves (20% of the diet) exhibited a progressive reduction of intake and weight reduction. All rabbits consuming prairie acacia showed central nervous system disturbances. Researchers, in Stephenville, Texas, compared 15 native perennial herbaceous legumes for herbage production, crude protein percentage, and laboratory measurements of digestibility. Prairie acacia exhibited high, compared to the other species, herbage yield and crude protein percentage. The laboratory measurements suggested that prairie acacia is more digestible to livestock than other species tested

Restoration: Prairie acacia is a hardy and drought tolerant plant that is useful for revegetation of land disturbed by mining or road construction.

Wildlife: Prairie acacia is browsed by white-tail deer. It is a prolific seed producer. Quail and other birds will utilize the seed for food and the vegetation provides cover for small animals and wild birds.

Alley Cropping: Prairie acacia has potential as a nitrogen fixation tree for alley cropping systems in the Caribbean and other subtropical and tropical areas.

Status

Description

Pea Family (Fabaceae). Prairie acacia is a native, perennial, warm-season, hardy, deep taproot legume. A smooth and small rounded shrub, forming colonies by means of woody rhizomes with aerial stems ~~and~~ that are thornless and rarely over three feet tall. The plant has an attractive and delicate fern-like foliage which closes at night and when touched. Stems are thin, usually unbranched, glabrate, and ridged. Leaves are alternate, the blade divided into usually 3-12 pairs of segments, these again divided into 6-20 pairs of tiny leaflets. Flowers are small and white to creamy yellow. It has 5 petals and stamens numerous, long, and protruding. Flowers numerous, congested in rounded terminal clusters on long stalks arising from upper leaf axils. Fruit is brownish flat seed pod 4-7 cm (1.6-2.8 in) long and 6-8 mm (0.25-0.3) wide. Plant is similar in appearance to Illinois bundleflower, Desmanthus illinoensis, but the fruit and leaf structures are different.

Adaptation

Prairie acacia is native from Columbia and the Caribbean, north to Texas, Oklahoma, Kansas, Arkansas, Missouri, and Florida. Prairie acacia is a tough subshrub found in dry soils on prairie hillsides, savannahs, rock outcrops, grasslands and open shrubby vegetation areas. It grows on well-drained acidic to slightly alkaline soils. This drought tolerant perennial subshrub grows from Zones 6a-10b of the USDA Plant Hardiness Zones Map.

Establishment

A well prepared seedbed that has been plowed, harrowed, and compacted to produce a clean and firm seedbed is required. For seed production at the NRCS/James E. ‘Bud’ Smith Plant Materials Center near Knox City, Texas, seeds were planted in 40 inch row pattern at a depth of ¾ inch at ~~five~~ 5 Pure Live Seed (PLS) pound per acre. A two row cotton planter, with a junior planter attachment, for slick seeds, was used.

On established pasture a native grass drill equipped with coulters and with a small legume box will do well for planting. Another planting method if a native grass drill is not available or cannot be used due to terrain, is tracking the ground with a bulldozer then broadcasting the seed. Seeds should be inoculated before planting with a general cowpea inoculant. The proper time of planting is from March to April to assure establishment before summer. The seed of prairie acacia are small, about 198450-220500 seeds per pound. Mechanical scarification and soaking seed in cold water have produced increases in the germination percentage.

Management

Plan a grazing management system for prairie acacia growing in pasture or rangeland. Prairie acacia can decrease under misuse or heavy grazing. For an aesthetic landscape use, these plants with their round white flowers that appear in the summer into fall, are attractive to bees, butterflies, and birds.

Pests and Potential Problems

No Pest or potential problems were found on prairie acacia while growing at the NRCS/James E. ‘Bud’ Smith Plant Materials Center near Knox City, Texas.

Cultivars, Improved, and Selected Materials (and area of origin)

There are currently no cultivars of prairie acacia in the commercial seed or plant production.

Prepared By

Rudy G. Esquivel, USDA NRCS James E. “Bud” Smith Plant Materials Center, Knox City, Texas

and

James Henson, USDA NRCS National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana

Species Coordinator:

Rudy G. Esquivel, USDA NRCS/James E. ‘Bud’ Smith Plant Materials, Center, Knox City, Texas

Edited: 070108 jsp

Acer circinatum Pursh
vine maple
ACCI

Summary
Duration	Perennial
Growth Habit	Tree, Shrub, Vine
U.S. Nativity	Native to U.S.
Federal T/E Status
National Wetland Indicator	FACU+, FAC

Morphology/Physiology
Active Growth Period	Spring and Summer
After Harvest Regrowth Rate
Bloat
C:N Ratio	High
Coppice Potential	No
Fall Conspicuous	Yes
Fire Resistant	No
Flower Color	Green
Flower Conspicuous	Yes
Foliage Color	Green
Foliage Porosity Summer	Moderate
Foliage Porosity Winter	Porous
Foliage Texture	Medium
Fruit/Seed Color	Brown
Fruit/Seed Conspicuous	No
Growth Form	Single Stem
Growth Rate	Moderate
Height at 20 Years, Maximum (feet)	15
Height, Mature (feet)	20
Known Allelopath	No
Leaf Retention	No
Lifespan	Short
Low Growing Grass	No
Nitrogen Fixation
Resprout Ability	Yes
Shape and Orientation	Erect
Toxicity	None

Growth Requirements
Adapted to Coarse Textured Soils	Yes
Adapted to Fine Textured Soils	Yes
Adapted to Medium Textured Soils	Yes
Anaerobic Tolerance	None
CaCO3 Tolerance	None
Cold Stratification Required	Yes
Drought Tolerance	Low
Fertility Requirement	Medium
Fire Tolerance	Medium
Frost Free Days, Minimum	200
Hedge Tolerance	None
Moisture Use	Medium
pH, Minimum	5.5
pH, Maximum	7.5
Planting Density per Acre, Minimum	700
Planting Density per Acre, Maximum	1100
Precipitation, Minimum	24
Precipitation, Maximum	80
Root Depth, Minimum (inches)	24
Salinity Tolerance	None
Shade Tolerance	Tolerant
Temperature, Minimum (°F)	-13

Reproduction
Bloom Period	Spring
Commercial Availability	No Known Source
Fruit/Seed Abundance	Medium
Fruit/Seed Period Begin	Summer
Fruit/Seed Period End	Fall
Fruit/Seed Persistence	No
Propagated by Bare Root	Yes
Propagated by Bulb	No
Propagated by Container	Yes
Propagated by Corm	No
Propagated by Cuttings	No
Propagated by Seed	Yes
Propagated by Sod	No
Propagated by Sprigs	No
Propagated by Tubers	No
Seed per Pound	4620
Seed Spread Rate	Slow
Seedling Vigor	Medium
Small Grain	No
Vegetative Spread Rate	None

Suitability/Use
Berry/Nut/Seed Product	No
Christmas Tree Product	No
Fodder Product	No
Fuelwood Product	High
Lumber Product	No
Naval Store Product	Yes
Nursery Stock Product	No
Palatable Browse Animal	Low
Palatable Graze Animal
Palatable Human	No
Post Product	No
Protein Potential
Pulpwood Product	No
Veneer Product	No

Kingdom Plantae -- Plants

Subkingdom Tracheobionta -- Vascular plants

Superdivision Spermatophyta -- Seed plants

Division Magnoliophyta -- Flowering plants

Class Magnoliopsida -- Dicotyledons

Subclass Rosidae

Order Sapindales

Family Aceraceae -- Maple family

Genus Acer L. -- maple P

Species Acer circinatum Pursh -- vine maple P

Alternative Name

Oregon vine maple

Uses

Ethnobotanic: Native Americans used the straight long stems for making baskets used for general household utility such as carrying wood and fish. They also carved the wood into numerous household utensils such as spoons, bowls, and platters. The sap contains a certain amount of sugar and that used as a drink or concentrated into syrup by boiling off the water (Facciola 1990). Vine maple was used occasionally for tool handles of axes, and frames. This species was used by the Indians of the northwest coast for the bows of their fishing nets (Sargent 1933). The saplings were used for babies’ cradles.

Medicinal: The wood was burnt to charcoal and mixed with water and brown sugar then used in the treatment of dysentery and polio (Moerman 1998).

Wildlife: The seeds and buds provide food for squirrels, chipmunks, and numerous birds. Cattle and sheep eat vine maple leaves. During the summer months the leaves and twigs are a preferred food of black-tailed deer and elk.

Agroforestry: Vine maple is used in forested riparian buffers to help reduce stream bank erosion, protect water quality, and enhance aquatic environments.

Status

Please consult the Plants Web site and your State Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s current status, such as, state noxious status and wetland indicator values.

Description

General: Maple Family (Aceraceae). Vine maple is a native, deciduous shrub or small tree that ranges between ten to twenty feet. The leaves are round to cordate, usually seven to nine centimeters long, pointed, and double toothed. The flowers are white petals in small loose clusters emerging with the leaves. The bark is thin, smooth, and greenish becoming bright reddish brown.

Distribution: Acer circinatum occurs in the Pacific Northwest ranging from the Cascade Mountains to southern British Columbia to northern California. For current distribution, please consult the Plant profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web site.

Adaptation

Vine maple occurs most frequently on moist soils along the banks of streams and wet sites. It commonly occurs with Douglas fir, Pacific dogwood, big leaf maple, and western hemlock. This species prefers shady areas but can tolerate the sun. It sometimes grows in clumps or patches (Farrar 1995).

Establishment

Propagation from Seed: The seeds should be gathered and immediately stratified for 90 days at 41º F to break seed dormancy. Sow the seeds in containers or seed trays containing a slow release fertilizer. Firm the medium and place the seeds thinly and evenly on top and cover with medium (Heusser 1997). Seedlings should be placed into individual pots when they are large enough to handle.

Propagation from Softwood Cuttings: Cuttings should be done in the spring or early summer in the early morning. Take cuttings about five to ten centimeters long, just above the node. Put cuttings in a plastic bag to prevent moisture loss (Heuser 1997). They must not be allowed to wilt. Trim the cuttings below the lowest node to remove the lower leaves leaving three or four at the tip (Ibid.). A rooting hormone may be applied to improve rooting before planting. Insert the cuttings in the rooting medium up to half their length so the leaves don’t touch each other. The cuttings should root in two to three weeks, after which they can be potted (Ibid.).

Management

Constant pruning is needed to avoid long internodes. Watering may be reduced in the winter but the soil should be kept evenly moist.

Vine maple sends out slender arching branches in the wild. These form roots when they touch the ground and the plant thereby forms large impenetrable thickets often several hectares (Sargent 1965).

Cultivars, Improved and Selected Materials (and area of origin)

Somewhat available through native plant nurseries.

References

Britton, N.L. 1908. North American trees. Henry Holt & Company, New York, New York.

Dirr, M.A. 1990. Manual of woody landscape plants: their identification, ornamental characteristics, culture, propagation, and uses. 4^th ed. Stipes Publishing Co., Champaigne, Illinois.

Facciola, S. 1990. Cornucopia-a source book of edible plants. Kampong Publications.

McMinn, H.E. 1951. An illustrated manual of California shrubs. University of California Press, Berkeley & Los Angeles, California.

McMinn, H.E. & E. Maino 1951. An illustrated manual of pacific coast trees. University of California Press, Berkeley, California.

Moerman, D. 1998. Native American ethnobotany. Timber Press, Portland, Oregon.

Heuser, C.W. 1997. The complete book of plant propagation. The Taunton Press, Newtown, Connecticut.

Preston, R.J., Jr. 1989. North American trees. 4^th ed. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa.

Rehder, A. 1940. Manual of cultivated trees and shrubs hardy in North America. 2^nd ed. The MacMillan Company, New York, New York.

Sargent, C.S. 1933. Manual of the trees of North America. The Riverside Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

Sargent, C.S. 1965. Manual of the trees of North America. Vol. 1. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, New York.

Prepared By

Jammie Favorite, formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana

Species Coordinator

Lincoln Moore, USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana

Edited: 10jan02 jsp; 25feb03 ahv; 24may06jsp

Acer ginnala Maxim.
Amur maple
ACGI

Summary
Duration	Perennial
Growth Habit	Tree, Shrub
U.S. Nativity	Introduced to U.S.
Federal T/E Status
National Wetland Indicator

Morphology/Physiology
Active Growth Period	Spring and Summer
After Harvest Regrowth Rate
Bloat
C:N Ratio	High
Coppice Potential	No
Fall Conspicuous	Yes
Fire Resistant	No
Flower Color	Yellow
Flower Conspicuous	No
Foliage Color	Green
Foliage Porosity Summer	Dense
Foliage Porosity Winter	Moderate
Foliage Texture	Medium
Fruit/Seed Color	Brown
Fruit/Seed Conspicuous	No
Growth Form	Multiple Stem
Growth Rate	Rapid
Height at 20 Years, Maximum (feet)	15
Height, Mature (feet)	20
Known Allelopath	No
Leaf Retention	No
Lifespan	Moderate
Low Growing Grass	No
Nitrogen Fixation
Resprout Ability	Yes
Shape and Orientation	Rounded
Toxicity	None

Growth Requirements
Adapted to Coarse Textured Soils	Yes
Adapted to Fine Textured Soils	No
Adapted to Medium Textured Soils	Yes
Anaerobic Tolerance	None
CaCO3 Tolerance	Medium
Cold Stratification Required	Yes
Drought Tolerance	Low
Fertility Requirement	Medium
Fire Tolerance	High
Frost Free Days, Minimum	130
Hedge Tolerance	Medium
Moisture Use	Medium
pH, Minimum	6.1
pH, Maximum	7.5
Planting Density per Acre, Minimum	170
Planting Density per Acre, Maximum	700
Precipitation, Minimum	30
Precipitation, Maximum	60
Root Depth, Minimum (inches)	24
Salinity Tolerance	None
Shade Tolerance	Intermediate
Temperature, Minimum (°F)	-38

Reproduction
Bloom Period	Mid Spring
Commercial Availability	Routinely Available
Fruit/Seed Abundance	High
Fruit/Seed Period Begin	Summer
Fruit/Seed Period End	Fall
Fruit/Seed Persistence	No
Propagated by Bare Root	Yes
Propagated by Bulb	No
Propagated by Container	Yes
Propagated by Corm	No
Propagated by Cuttings	No
Propagated by Seed	Yes
Propagated by Sod	No
Propagated by Sprigs	No
Propagated by Tubers	No
Seed per Pound	15200
Seed Spread Rate	Slow
Seedling Vigor	Low
Small Grain	No
Vegetative Spread Rate	None

Suitability/Use
Berry/Nut/Seed Product	No
Christmas Tree Product	No
Fodder Product	No
Fuelwood Product	Medium
Lumber Product	No
Naval Store Product	No
Nursery Stock Product	Yes
Palatable Browse Animal	Low
Palatable Graze Animal	Low
Palatable Human	No
Post Product	No
Protein Potential
Pulpwood Product	No
Veneer Product	No

Acer ginnala Maxim.
Amur maple
ACGI
Cultivar: Flame

Summary
Duration	Perennial
Growth Habit	Tree, Shrub
U.S. Nativity	Introduced to U.S.
Federal T/E Status
National Wetland Indicator

Morphology/Physiology
Active Growth Period	Spring and Summer
After Harvest Regrowth Rate
Bloat
C:N Ratio	High
Coppice Potential	No
Fall Conspicuous	Yes
Fire Resistant	No
Flower Color	Yellow
Flower Conspicuous	No
Foliage Color	Green
Foliage Porosity Summer	Dense
Foliage Porosity Winter	Moderate
Foliage Texture	Medium
Fruit/Seed Color	Brown
Fruit/Seed Conspicuous	No
Growth Form	Multiple Stem
Growth Rate	Rapid
Height at 20 Years, Maximum (feet)	15
Height, Mature (feet)	20
Known Allelopath	No
Leaf Retention	No
Lifespan	Moderate
Low Growing Grass	No
Nitrogen Fixation
Resprout Ability	Yes
Shape and Orientation	Rounded
Toxicity	None

Growth Requirements
Adapted to Coarse Textured Soils	Yes
Adapted to Fine Textured Soils	No
Adapted to Medium Textured Soils	Yes
Anaerobic Tolerance	None
CaCO3 Tolerance	Low
Cold Stratification Required	Yes
Drought Tolerance	Low
Fertility Requirement	Medium
Fire Tolerance	High
Frost Free Days, Minimum	120
Hedge Tolerance	Medium
Moisture Use	Medium
pH, Minimum	6.1
pH, Maximum	7.5
Planting Density per Acre, Minimum	170
Planting Density per Acre, Maximum	700
Precipitation, Minimum	30
Precipitation, Maximum	60
Root Depth, Minimum (inches)	24
Salinity Tolerance	None
Shade Tolerance	Intermediate
Temperature, Minimum (°F)	-28

Reproduction
Bloom Period	Mid Spring
Commercial Availability	Routinely Available
Fruit/Seed Abundance	High
Fruit/Seed Period Begin	Summer
Fruit/Seed Period End	Fall
Fruit/Seed Persistence	No
Propagated by Bare Root	Yes
Propagated by Bulb	No
Propagated by Container	Yes
Propagated by Corm	No
Propagated by Cuttings	No
Propagated by Seed	Yes
Propagated by Sod	No
Propagated by Sprigs	No
Propagated by Tubers	No
Seed per Pound	15200
Seed Spread Rate	Slow
Seedling Vigor	Low
Small Grain	No
Vegetative Spread Rate	None

Suitability/Use
Berry/Nut/Seed Product	No
Christmas Tree Product	No
Fodder Product	No
Fuelwood Product	Medium
Lumber Product	No
Naval Store Product	No
Nursery Stock Product	Yes
Palatable Browse Animal	Low
Palatable Graze Animal	Low
Palatable Human	No
Post Product	No
Protein Potential
Pulpwood Product	No
Veneer Product	No

Kingdom Plantae -- Plants

Subkingdom Tracheobionta -- Vascular plants

Superdivision Spermatophyta -- Seed plants

Division Magnoliophyta -- Flowering plants

Class Magnoliopsida -- Dicotyledons

Subclass Rosidae

Order Sapindales

Family Aceraceae -- Maple family

Genus Acer L. -- maple P

Species Acer ginnala Maxim. -- Amur maple P

Alternative Name

Siberian maple

Uses

Ethnobotanic: The young leaves were used as a tea substitute (Kunkel 1984). Black, blue, and brown dyes were obtained and dried from the leaves.

Landscaping & Wildlife: The main ornamental value of Amur maple is its red fall color and fruit. This is an excellent, low growing tree for small yards. It is sometimes used for hedges or screens. It has a fair rating for wildlife.

Agroforestry: Acer ginnala is used in tree strips for windbreaks. They are planted and managed to protect livestock, enhance production, and control soil erosion. Windbreaks can help communities with harsh winter conditions better handle the impact of winter storms and reduce home heating costs during the winter months.

Status

Introduced into the U.S. Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s current status, such as, state noxious status and wetland indicator values.

Description

General: Maple family (Aceraceae). Amur maple is an introduced, deciduous large shrub or small tree. It can be grown as a multistemmed clump or trained into a small tree with a single trunk. It can also be sheared into a hedge. The leaves are simple, opposite; eight to ten centimeters long, and coarsely toothed. The fragrant, creamy whit flowers appear with the new foliage in April and May (Dirr 1997). The fruit samaras are 0.75 to 1 inch long, held in small panicles and are red to brown in color. The bark is smooth and gray on young branches and grayish brown on older branches.

Distribution: Amur maple is native to Manchuria, north China and Japan and is cultivated in gardens and parks (McMinn & Maino 1951). For current distribution, please consult the Plant profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web site.

Adaptation

Acer ginnala grows best in moist well-drained soil, but can tolerate a wide variety of soils, poor soil fertility, and are pH adaptable. This species displays excellent tolerance to dry and alkaline soils (Dirr 1997). It is reasonably drought tolerant. It will tolerate shade, but develops a better fall color if grown in full sun. Acer ginnala grows best in colder climates with cool summers. It can be grown in hotter areas if care is taken to prevent dehydration.

Establishment

Propagation from Seed: Pre-soak the stored seed for twenty-four hours and then stratify for one to four months at 1-8ºC. Seeds can be harvested when they are fully developed but before they have dried and produced any germination inhibitors. Sow immediately in a seedbed or open frame. Spring sown seeds may not germinate for another year. Transfer to a nursery bed in the first spring (Heuser 1997). If the seeds are harvested too soon they will produce very weak plants or no plants at all (McMillan 1985).

Propagation from Cuttings: Cuttings of young shoots should be done in June or July. The cuttings should consist of two to three pairs of leaves and one pair of buds on the base. Place cuttings in plastic, bag and seal to prevent moisture loss. They must not be allowed to wilt. Trim the cuttings below the lowest node to remove the lower leaves leaving three or four at the tip. A rooting hormone may be applied to improve rooting before planting. Insert the cuttings in the rooting medium up to half their length so the leaves don’t touch each other. The cuttings should root in two to three weeks, after which they can be potted (Heuser1997).

Management

Containerized trees should not be planted in their permanent position until they are twenty centimeters or taller. Amur maple should be pruned in the winter or early spring to help develop and maintain a good single trunk tree form. Amur maple is usually pest free; however, sometimes, spraying is necessary to controls aphids.

Cultivars, Improved and Selected Materials (and area of origin)

‘Red Fruit’, ‘Bailey Compact’, ‘Flame’, ‘Compactum’ and ‘Durand Dwarf’ are cultivars of Acer ginnala. ‘Red Fruit’ is a collective term for types whose fruit color is brilliant red (Dirr 1990). ‘Bailey Compact’ has a compact shrubby form, growing between eight to twelve inches high. ‘Flame’ is a dense shrub or small tree with red fruits and fiery red fall color (Dirr 1990). ‘Compactum’ is dense and compact and shows vigorous growth reaching between five to six inches. ‘Durand Dwarf’ is a shrubby type, with branches more dense than ‘Compactum’, will grow three to five inches high.

Consult your local nurseries to choose the right cultivar for your specific landscape.

References

Barnes, B.V. & W.H. Wagner, Jr. 1981. Michigan trees. The University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, Michigan.

Dirr, M.A. 1997 Dirr’s hardy trees and shrubs: an illustrated encyclopedia. Timber Press, Portland, Oregon.

Dirr, M.A. 1990. Manual of woody landscape plants: their identification, ornamental characteristics, culture, propagation, and uses. 4^th ed. Stipes Publishing Co., Champaigne, Illinois.

Dirr, M.A. & C.W. Heuser, Jr. 1987. The reference manual of woody plant propagation: from seed to tissue culture. Varsity Press, Athens, Georgia.

Farrar, J.L. 1995. Trees of the Northern United States and Canada. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa.

Heuser, C.W. 1997. The complete book of plant propagation. The Taunton Press, Newtown, Connecticut.

McMillan, B.P. 1985. Hardy woody plants of North America. Grower Books.

McMinn, H.E. 1951. An illustrated manual of California shrubs. University of California Press, Berkeley & Los Angeles, California.

Kunkel, G. 1984. Plants for human consumption. Koeltz Scientific Books.

Rosendahl, C.O. 1955. Trees & shrubs of the upper Midwest. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, Minnesota.

Taylor, N. 1965. The guide to garden shrubs and trees. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, Massachusetts.

USDA, NRCS 2000. Conservation trees and shrubs for Montana. Custer County Soil Conservation District. Accessed: 10jan02.

<http://www.mt.nrcs.usda.gov/pas/forestry/maple.html>

Wyman, D. 1965. Trees for American gardens. The MacMillan Company, New York, New York .

Prepared By

Jammie Favorite, formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana

Species Coordinator

Lincoln M. Moore

USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center

Baton Rouge, Louisiana

Edited: 10jan02 jsp; 14feb03 ahv; 24may06jsp

Acer glabrum Torr.
Rocky Mountain maple
ACGL

Summary
Duration	Perennial
Growth Habit	Tree, Shrub
U.S. Nativity	Native to U.S.
Federal T/E Status
National Wetland Indicator	FACU, FAC

Morphology/Physiology
Active Growth Period	Spring and Summer
After Harvest Regrowth Rate
Bloat
C:N Ratio	High
Coppice Potential	No
Fall Conspicuous	Yes
Fire Resistant	No
Flower Color	Green
Flower Conspicuous	No
Foliage Color	Green
Foliage Porosity Summer	Dense
Foliage Porosity Winter	Porous
Foliage Texture	Coarse
Fruit/Seed Color	Brown
Fruit/Seed Conspicuous	No
Growth Form	Multiple Stem
Growth Rate	Rapid
Height at 20 Years, Maximum (feet)	15
Height, Mature (feet)	30
Known Allelopath	No
Leaf Retention	No
Lifespan	Moderate
Low Growing Grass	No
Nitrogen Fixation
Resprout Ability	Yes
Shape and Orientation	Erect
Toxicity	None

Growth Requirements
Adapted to Coarse Textured Soils	Yes
Adapted to Fine Textured Soils	No
Adapted to Medium Textured Soils	Yes
Anaerobic Tolerance	None
CaCO3 Tolerance	Medium
Cold Stratification Required	Yes
Drought Tolerance	Medium
Fertility Requirement	Medium
Fire Tolerance	High
Frost Free Days, Minimum	180
Hedge Tolerance	Medium
Moisture Use	Low
pH, Minimum	5.8
pH, Maximum	7.5
Planting Density per Acre, Minimum	300
Planting Density per Acre, Maximum	1200
Precipitation, Minimum	12
Precipitation, Maximum	25
Root Depth, Minimum (inches)	24
Salinity Tolerance	None
Shade Tolerance	Intermediate
Temperature, Minimum (°F)	-43

Reproduction
Bloom Period	Late Spring
Commercial Availability	Routinely Available
Fruit/Seed Abundance	High
Fruit/Seed Period Begin	Summer
Fruit/Seed Period End	Fall
Fruit/Seed Persistence	No
Propagated by Bare Root	Yes
Propagated by Bulb	No
Propagated by Container	Yes
Propagated by Corm	No
Propagated by Cuttings	Yes
Propagated by Seed	Yes
Propagated by Sod	No
Propagated by Sprigs	No
Propagated by Tubers	No
Seed per Pound	13663
Seed Spread Rate	Slow
Seedling Vigor	Low
Small Grain	No
Vegetative Spread Rate	Slow

Suitability/Use
Berry/Nut/Seed Product	No
Christmas Tree Product	No
Fodder Product	No
Fuelwood Product	Medium
Lumber Product	No
Naval Store Product	No
Nursery Stock Product	Yes
Palatable Browse Animal	High
Palatable Graze Animal	Low
Palatable Human	No
Post Product	No
Protein Potential
Pulpwood Product	No
Veneer Product	No

Kingdom Plantae -- Plants

Subkingdom Tracheobionta -- Vascular plants

Superdivision Spermatophyta -- Seed plants

Division Magnoliophyta -- Flowering plants

Class Magnoliopsida -- Dicotyledons

Subclass Rosidae

Order Sapindales

Family Aceraceae -- Maple family

Genus Acer L. -- maple P

Species Acer glabrum Torr. -- Rocky Mountain maple P

Alternate common names

Mountain maple, Douglas maple, Douglas Rocky Mountain maple, three leaf Rocky Mountain maple, rose-fruit Rocky Mountain maple, Sierra maple, California mountain maple, New Mexico maple, box maple, rock maple, dwarf maple

Uses

Rocky Mountain maple is planted to a limited extent to improve wildlife habitat, to stabilize slopes, and to provide low-maintenance landscaping. The striking red bark and contrasting light green leaves, turning red in the fall, make it a desirable ornamental shrub.

Rocky Mountain maple is a highly valued big game browse species. Moose, elk, mule deer, and white-tailed deer to varying degrees throughout the year eat its leaves and twigs, but it is especially important as a winter food source. Post-wildfire brush fields, with Rocky Mountain maple as an important component, are prime winter range and provide both cover and food for moose, elk, and deer. The species also provides considerable cover and nesting habitat for many game birds, songbirds, and small mammals, especially where the maples grow more densely in open habitats. In commercial timber operations, shrub fields of Rocky Mountain maple often interfere with seedling establishment and early growth of conifers, and the maple is removed.

The easily bendable stems were used by various American Indian tribes to make drying racks, drum hoops, snowshoe frames, spears, pegs, toys, and masks. The fibrous bark was woven into mats and rope. A bark decoction was used as a poison antidote.

Status

Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s current status, such as, state noxious status and wetland indicator values.

Description

General: Maple Family (Aceraceae): This is a native shrub 1.5-2 m tall or trees 6-10(-12) m tall, variable in form, with short trunk(s) and slender, upright branches, hairless, with slender, reddish-brown shoots and thin; bark smooth, gray or brown. The leaves are deciduous, opposite, 4-12 cm long and wide, sometimes smaller, sometimes divided into three lanceolate leaflets but usually palmately 3(-5)-lobed and veined, the lobes ovate with narrowly acute sinuses and double-toothed edges, with a reddish petiole, shiny dark green above, paler or whitish beneath, turning pale yellow to yellowish-orange or crimson in fall. The flowers are greenish-yellow, with petals usually present, in short, branched terminal or axillary flat-topped clusters 2.5-5 cm long, on drooping stalks. The male and female flowers are usually on separate plants (the species essentially dioecious) or on the same plant (the species technically polygamo-dioecious). The fruits are winged nutlets (samaras) 2.5 cm long, often reddish tinted at maturity, in a long-stalked, wide-spreading pair. The common name is derived from the predominantly Rocky Mountain distribution.

Variation within the species: Numerous varieties of Rocky Mountain maple have been described primarily on the basis of variation in stature, twig color, leaf lobing and size, and fruit shape. The following are currently recognized.

Var. diffusum (Greene) Smiley

Var. douglasii (Hook.) Dippel

Var. glabrum

Var. greenei Keller

Var. neomexicanum (Greene) Kearney and Peebles

Var. torreyi (Greene) Smiley

Distribution: Rocky Mountain maple is broadly distributed in the western U.S., from southeastern Alaska, British Columbia, and southwestern Alberta, south from western Washington to southern California and east to southern New Mexico, northwestern Nebraska, and Montana. For current distribution, please consult the Plant Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web site.

Adaptation

Moist but well-drained seepage sites, mostly in rocky areas, along streambanks, moist slopes, canyons, and ravines, sometimes dry ridges, at low to middle elevations and moist sites in high mountains, 900-3300 meters. Rocky Mountain maple is a long-lived, shade-tolerant seral species that often persists in the understory of late seral or climax coniferous stands, usually Douglas fir, grand fir, subalpine fir, white fir, or Engelmann spruce. Because of its sprouting ability, it often gains dominance in seral shrub communities after conifer overstories are eliminated or reduced by wildfire or logging.

This species flowers in April-June(-July) and fruits in August(-September and October).

Establishment

Rocky Mountain maple begins to produce seed probably before 10 years of age, but “resprouts” may produce seed by 5 years after a fire. Seed is produced annually but large seed crops may not be produced every year. The seeds require approximately 6 months of chilling to break embryo dormancy, usually supplied under natural conditions for spring germination. They quickly lose viability after the first year in storage as well as under natural conditions. Germination and early establishment occur best in partial shade, but rates of germination and establishment are generally low.

Rocky Mountain maple produces numerous root crown sprouts following disturbances from fire or logging, but it does not appear to spread from root suckers or rhizomes. It is difficult to grow from cuttings.

Management

Most fires top-kill Rocky Mountain maple but root crown sprouts allow it to persist or increase in postfire communities. Hot fires may damage root crowns. Rocky Mountain maple in northern Idaho sprouts 4-8 weeks after prescribed burns in spring (when plants are still in winter dormancy) and sprouts the following spring after fall burning. Summer prescribed fires are helpful to an associated species, redstem ceanothus (Ceanothus sanguineus), which requires high temperatures to crack seedcoats prior to germination.

Rocky Mountain maple is best established by transplanting 2-year-old or older stock. To produce seedlings for transplanting, seed may be sown directly in the field or in nursery beds. Unstratified seed should be planted in the fall for best results; stratified seed is planted in the spring. Seeds should be stored in sealed containers at 1.6–5^oC, but viability may be no more than 1-3 years. Warm stratify at 20–35.5^oC for 180 days and then moist chill at 3–5^oC for 180 days; or moist chill for 3–6 months at 3–5^oC. Planting depth is 0.6–2.5 centimeters. Guidelines for seed storage, treatment, growing seedling transplants, and planting are summarized in Olson (1974), Shaw (1984), and Wenger (1984).

Cultivars, Improved and Selected Materials (and area of origin)

Rocky Mountain maple is available a nurseries within its range.

References

Olson, D.F., Jr. & W.J. Gabriel 1974. Acer L. In: C.S. Schopmeyer (techn. coord.). Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handb. 450. USDA, Forest Service, Washington, DC.

Shaw, N. 1984. Producing bareroot seedlings of native shrubs. In: P.M. Murphy (compiler). The challenge of producing native plants for the Intermountain area: Proceedings, Intermountain Nurseryman's Association conference; Las Vegas, 1983. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-168. USDA, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Ogden, UT.

Uchytil, R. J. 1989. Acer glabrum. IN: W.C. Fischer (compiler). The fire effects information system [Data base]. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Intermountain Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, Montana. <http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/>

Vories, K.C. 1981. Growing Colorado plants from seed: A state of the art. Volume I. Shrubs. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-103. USDA, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Ogden, Utah.

Wenger, K.F. (ed.) 1984. Forestry handbook (ed. 2). John Wiley & Sons, New York, New York.

Prepared By

Guy Nesom, BONAP, North Carolina Botanical Garden, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina

Species Coordinator

Lincoln Moore, USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana

Edited: 13nov00jsp; 07feb03ahv; 24may06jsp

Acer macrophyllum Pursh
bigleaf maple
ACMA3

Summary
Duration	Perennial
Growth Habit	Tree
U.S. Nativity	Native to U.S.
Federal T/E Status
National Wetland Indicator	FACU, FAC

Morphology/Physiology
Active Growth Period	Spring and Summer
After Harvest Regrowth Rate
Bloat	None
C:N Ratio	High
Coppice Potential	No
Fall Conspicuous	Yes
Fire Resistant	No
Flower Color	Yellow
Flower Conspicuous	No
Foliage Color	Green
Foliage Porosity Summer	Dense
Foliage Porosity Winter	Porous
Foliage Texture	Medium
Fruit/Seed Color	Brown
Fruit/Seed Conspicuous	No
Growth Form

Alternate common names

Uses

Status

Description

Distribution

Adaptation

Establishment

Management

Cultivars, Improved and Selected Materials (and area of origin)

References

Prepared By

Species Coordinator

Alternative Name

Uses

Status

Please consult the Plants Web site and your State Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s current status, such as, state noxious status and wetland indicator values.

Description

Distribution: Acer circinatum occurs in the Pacific Northwest ranging from the Cascade Mountains to southern British Columbia to northern California. For current distribution, please consult the Plant profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web site.

Adaptation

Establishment

Management

Cultivars, Improved and Selected Materials (and area of origin)

References

Rehder, A. 1940. Manual of cultivated trees and shrubs hardy in North America. 2nd ed. The MacMillan Company, New York, New York.

Prepared By

Jammie Favorite, formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana

Species Coordinator

Uses

Status

Introduced into the U.S. Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s current status, such as, state noxious status and wetland indicator values.

Description

Adaptation

Establishment

Management

Cultivars, Improved and Selected Materials (and area of origin)

References

Prepared By

Jammie Favorite, formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana

Species Coordinator

Lincoln M. Moore

Alternate common names

Uses

Status

Description

Adaptation

Establishment

Management

Cultivars, Improved and Selected Materials (and area of origin)

References

Prepared By

Species Coordinator

Rehder, A. 1940. Manual of cultivated trees and shrubs hardy in North America. 2^nd ed. The MacMillan Company, New York, New York.